knowledge.rtf

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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1080\sl240\slmult1\b\i OSI Model\b0\par

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The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to its underlying internal structure and technology. Its goal is the interoperability of diverse communication systems with standard communication protocols. The model partitions a communication system into abstraction layers. The original version of the model had seven layers.\par
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A layer serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that constitute the contents of that path. Two instances at the same layer are visualized as connected by a horizontal connection in that layer.\par
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The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).\par
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1\f1\lang1026 . \f0\lang9 Physical\f1\lang1026  - \f0\lang9 Transmission and reception of raw bit streams over a physical medium\par
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2\f1\lang1026 . \f0\lang9 Data link\f1\lang1026  - \f0\lang9 Reliable transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical layer\par
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3\f1\lang1026 . \f0\lang9 Network\f1\lang1026  - \f0\lang9 Structuring and managing a multi-node network, including addressing, routing and traffic control\par
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4\f1\lang1026 . \f0\lang9 Transport\f1\lang1026  - \f0\lang9 Reliable transmission of data segments between points on a network, including segmentation, acknowledgement and multiplexing\par
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5\f1\lang1026 . \f0\lang9 Session\f1\lang1026  - \f0\lang9 Managing communication sessions, i.e. continuous exchange of information in the form of multiple back-and-forth transmissions between two nodes\par
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6\f1\lang1026 . \f0\lang9 Presentation\tab\f1\lang1026 - \f0\lang9 Translation of data between a networking service and an application; including character encoding, data compression and encryption/decryption\par
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7\f1\lang1026 . \f0\lang9 Application\f1\lang1026  - \f0\lang9 High-level APIs, including resource sharing, remote file access\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1080\sl240\slmult1\b RAID \f2\endash\f0  overview and main types\b0\par

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In computer storage, the standard RAID levels comprise a basic set of RAID (redundant array of independent disks) configurations that employ the techniques of striping, mirroring, or parity to create large reliable data stores from multiple general-purpose computer hard disk drives (HDDs). The most common types are RAID 0 (striping), RAID 1 (mirroring) and its variants, RAID 5 (distributed parity), and RAID 6 (dual parity). RAID levels and their associated data formats are standardized by the Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA) in the Common RAID Disk Drive Format (DDF) standard.\par
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While most RAID levels can provide good protection against and recovery from hardware defects or defective sectors/read errors (hard errors), they do not provide any protection against data loss due to catastrophic failures (fire, water) or soft errors such as user error, software malfunction, or malware infection. For valuable data, RAID is only one building block of a larger data loss prevention and recovery scheme \f2\endash  it cannot replace a backup plan.\par
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RAID 0 (also known as a stripe set or striped volume) splits ("stripes") data evenly across two or more disks, without parity information, redundancy, or fault tolerance. Since RAID 0 provides no fault tolerance or redundancy, the failure of one drive will cause the entire array to fail; as a result of having data striped across all disks, the failure will result in total data loss. This configuration is typically implemented having speed as the intended goal. RAID 0 is normally used to increase performance, although it can also be used as a way to create a large logical volume out of two or more physical disks.\par
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A RAID 0 setup can be created with disks of differing sizes, but the storage space added to the array by each disk is limited to the size of the smallest disk. For example, if a 120 GB disk is striped together with a 320 GB disk, the size of the array will be 120 GB \f0\'d7 2 = 240 GB. However, some RAID implementations allow the remaining 200 GB to be used for other purposes.\par
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Performance\par
A RAID 0 array of n drives provides data read and write transfer rates up to n times as high as the individual drive rates, but with no data redundancy. As a result, RAID 0 is primarily used in applications that require high performance and are able to tolerate lower reliability, such as in scientific computing or computer gaming.\par
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RAID 1 consists of an exact copy (or mirror) of a set of data on two or more disks; a classic RAID 1 mirrored pair contains two disks. This configuration offers no parity, striping, or spanning of disk space across multiple disks, since the data is mirrored on all disks belonging to the array, and the array can only be as big as the smallest member disk. This layout is useful when read performance or reliability is more important than write performance or the resulting data storage capacity.\par
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The array will continue to operate so long as at least one member drive is operational.\par
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Performance\par
Any read request can be serviced and handled by any drive in the array; thus, depending on the nature of I/O load, random read performance of a RAID 1 array may equal up to the sum of each member's performance, while the write performance remains at the level of a single disk. However, if disks with different speeds are used in a RAID 1 array, overall write performance is equal to the speed of the slowest disk.\par
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Synthetic benchmarks show varying levels of performance improvements when multiple HDDs or SSDs are used in a RAID 1 setup, compared with single-drive performance. However, some synthetic benchmarks also show a drop in performance for the same comparison.\par
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RAID 2, which is rarely used in practice, stripes data at the bit (rather than block) level, and uses a Hamming code for error correction. The disks are synchronized by the controller to spin at the same angular orientation (they reach index at the same time[clarification needed]), so it generally cannot service multiple requests simultaneously. However, depending with a high rate Hamming code, many spindles would operate in parallel to simultaneously transfer data so that "very high data transfer rates" are possibl as for example in the DataVault where 32 data bits were transmitted simultaneously.\par
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With all hard disk drives implementing internal error correction, the complexity of an external Hamming code offered little advantage over parity so RAID 2 has been rarely implemented; it is the only original level of RAID that is not currently used.\par
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RAID 3, which is rarely used in practice, consists of byte-level striping with a dedicated parity disk. One of the characteristics of RAID 3 is that it generally cannot service multiple requests simultaneously, which happens because any single block of data will, by definition, be spread across all members of the set and will reside in the same physical location on each disk. Therefore, any I/O operation requires activity on every disk and usually requires synchronized spindles.\par
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This makes it suitable for applications that demand the highest transfer rates in long sequential reads and writes, for example uncompressed video editing. Applications that make small reads and writes from random disk locations will get the worst performance out of this level.\par
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The requirement that all disks spin synchronously (in a lockstep) added design considerations to a level that provided no significant advantages over other RAID levels, so it quickly became useless and is now obsolete. Both RAID 3 and RAID 4 were quickly replaced by RAID 5. RAID 3 was usually implemented in hardware, and the performance issues were addressed by using large disk caches.\par
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RAID 4 consists of block-level striping with a dedicated parity disk. As a result of its layout, RAID 4 provides good performance of random reads, while the performance of random writes is low due to the need to write all parity data to a single disk.\par
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In diagram 1, a read request for block A1 would be serviced by disk 0. A simultaneous read request for block B1 would have to wait, but a read request for B2 could be serviced concurrently by disk 1.\par
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\b RAID 5 \b0 consists of block-level striping with distributed parity. Unlike in RAID 4, parity information is distributed among the drives. It requires that all drives but one be present to operate. Upon failure of a single drive, subsequent reads can be calculated from the distributed parity such that no data is lost. RAID 5 requires at least three disks.\par
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In comparison to RAID 4, RAID 5's distributed parity evens out the stress of a dedicated parity disk among all RAID members. Additionally, write performance is increased since all RAID members participate in the serving of write requests. Although it will not be as efficient as a striping (RAID 0) setup, because parity must still be written, this is no longer a bottleneck.\par
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Since parity calculation is performed on the full stripe, small changes to the array experience write amplification: in the worst case when a single, logical sector is to be written, the original sector and the according parity sector need to be read, the original data is removed from the parity, the new data calculated into the parity and both the new data sector and the new parity sector are written.\par
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RAID 6 extends RAID 5 by adding another parity block; thus, it uses block-level striping with two parity blocks distributed across all member disks.\par
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According to the Storage Networking Industry Association (SNIA), the definition of RAID 6 is: "Any form of RAID that can continue to execute read and write requests to all of a RAID array's virtual disks in the presence of any two concurrent disk failures. Several methods, including dual check data computations (parity and Reed-Solomon), orthogonal dual parity check data and diagonal parity, have been used to implement RAID Level 6."\par
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RAID 6 does not have a performance penalty for read operations, but it does have a performance penalty on write operations because of the overhead associated with parity calculations. Performance varies greatly depending on how RAID 6 is implemented in the manufacturer's storage architecture\f2\emdash in software, firmware, or by using firmware and specialized ASICs for intensive parity calculations. RAID 6 can read up to the same speed as RAID 5 with the same number of physical drives.\par
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When either diagonal or orthogonal dual parity is used, a second parity calculation is necessary for write operations. This doubles CPU overhead for RAID-6 versus single parity RAID levels. When a Reed Solomon code is used the second parity calculation is unnecessary. Reed Solomon has the advantage of allowing all redundancy information to be contained within a given stripe.\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1080\sl240\slmult1\b TCP/IP Stack\par

\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1 TCP/IP Encapsulation\par

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The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of communications protocols used in the Internet and similar computer networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the foundational protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). During its development, versions of it were known as the Department of Defense (DoD) model because the development of the networking method was funded by the United States Department of Defense through DARPA.\par
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The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed, and received. This functionality is organized into four abstraction layers, which classify all related protocols according to the scope of networking involved. From lowest to highest, the layers are the link layer, containing communication methods for data that remains within a single network segment (link); the internet layer, providing internetworking between independent networks; the transport layer, handling host-to-host communication; and the application layer, providing process-to-process data exchange for applications.\par
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The technical standards underlying the Internet protocol suite and its constituent protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model, a more comprehensive reference framework for general networking systems.\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1\b MAC\par

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\b0 The MAC is the data link layer of the TCP/IP stack \par
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, also called Ethernet addresses, are 6-byte-long (48-bit-long) binary numbers. For convenience, most computers list MAC addresses as 12-digit hexadecimal numbers.\par
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MAC addresses represent a single NIC or Ethernet port, so these addresses are often called a unicast Ethernet address. The term unicast is simply a formal way to refer to the fact that the address represents one interface to the Ethernet LAN.\par
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Each device MAC Address should be unique in order to send/receive data successfully.\par
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Imagine MAC addresses like people addresses or phone numbers. You can\rquote t have two persons have the same MAC Address. The thing about MAC address is that it\rquote s only used in LANs. It\rquote s an address that is only usable inside a local network. You can\rquote t send data to a device in a different network using it\rquote s MAC as destination, but you can send data to devices in your local networks using MAC address as identifier.\par

\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1\b IP (types)\b0\par

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Static IP Addresses\par
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As the name indicates, the static IP addresses usually never change but they may be changed as a result of network administration. They serve as a permanent Internet address and provide a simple and reliable way for the communication. From the static IP address of a system, we can get many details such as the continent, country, region and city in which a computer is located, The Internet Service Provider (ISP) that serves that particular computer and non-technical information such as precise latitude and longitude of the country,  and the locale of the computer. There are many websites providing IP address lookups. You can find out your IP addresses at {\cf0{\field{\*\fldinst{HYPERLINK http://whatismyip.org/ }}{\fldrslt{http://whatismyip.org/\ul0\cf0}}}}\f0\fs22 .\par
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Dynamic IP Addresses\par
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Dynamic IP address are the second category. These are temporary IP addresses. These IP addresses are assigned to a computer when they get connected to the Internet each time. They are actually borrowed from a pool of IP addresses, shared over various computers. Since limited number of static IP addresses are available, ISPs usually reserve the portion of their assigned addresses for sharing among their subscribers in this way.\par
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Static IP addresses are considered as less secure than dynamic IP addresses because they are easier to track.\par
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\b IP Version 4 and IP Version 6\b0\par
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The two versions of IP addresses currently running are IP versions 4 (IPv4) and IP versions 6 (IPv6). There are many features with these two versions.\par
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 IP Version 4\par
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IP Version 4 (IPv4) was defined in 1981. It has not undergone much changes from that time. Unfortunately, there is a need of IP addresses more than IPv4 could supply.\par
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\b IPv4 uses 32-bit IP address. So the maximum number of IP address is 232\f2\emdash or 4,294,967,296.\b0\par
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This is a little more than four billion IP addresses. \b An IPv4 address is typically formatted as four 8-bit fields\b0 . Each 8-bit field represents a byte of the IPv4 address. As we have seen earlier, each fields will be separated with dots. This method of representing the byte of an IPv4 address is referred to as the dotted-decimal format. The bytes of the IPv4 is further classified into two parts. The network part and the host part.\f0\par
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IP Version 6\par
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The IPv6 is the most recent version of Internet Protocol. As the Internet is growing rapidly, there is a global shortage for IPv4. IPv6 was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). IPv6 is intended to replace the IPv4. IPv6 uses a 128-bit address and it allows 2128 i.e. approximately 3.4\'d71038 addresses. The actual number is slightly smaller as some ranges are reserved for special use or not used. \b The IPv6 addresses are represented by 8 groups of four hexadecimal digits with the groups being supported by colons. \b0 An example is given below:\par
Eg: 2001:0db8:0000:0042:0000:8a2e:0370:7334\par
The features of IPv6\par
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The main features of the IPv6 are listed below.\par
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1) IPv6 provides better end-to-end connectivity than IPv4.\par
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2) Comparatively faster routing.\par
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3) IPv6 offers ease of administration than IPv4.\par
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4) More security for applications and networks.\par
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5) It provides better Multicast and Anycast abilities.\par
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6) Better mobility features than IPv4.\par
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7) IPv6 follows the key design principles of IPv4 and so that the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 is smoother.\par
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These are the key features of the IPv6 when compared to the IPv4. However, IPv6 has not become popular as IPv4.\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1\b TCP, UDP\b0\par

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Both TCP and UDP are protocols used for sending bits of data\f2\emdash known as packets\emdash over the Internet. Both protocols build on top of the IP protocol. In other words, whether you\rquote re sending a packet via TCP or UDP, that packet is sent to an IP address. These packets are treated similarly, as they\rquote re forwarded from your computer to intermediary routers and on to the destination.\par
TCP is the most commonly used protocol on the Internet.\par
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When you request a web page in your browser, your computer sends TCP packets to the web server\rquote s address, asking it to send the web page back to you. The web server responds by sending a stream of TCP packets, which your web browser stitches together to form the web page. When you click a link, sign in, post a comment, or do anything else, your web browser sends TCP packets to the server and the server sends TCP packets back.\par
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TCP is all about reliability\emdash packets sent with TCP are tracked so no data is lost or corrupted in transit. This is why file downloads don\rquote t become corrupted even if there are network hiccups. Of course, if the recipient is completely offline, your computer will give up and you\rquote ll see an error message saying it can\rquote t communicate with the remote host.\par
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TCP achieves this in two ways. First, it orders packets by numbering them. Second, it error-checks by having the recipient send a response back to the sender saying that it has received the message. If the sender doesn\rquote t get a correct response, it can resend the packets to ensure the recipient receives them correctly.\par
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The UDP protocol works similarly to TCP, but it throws out all the error-checking stuff. All the back-and-forth communication introduce latency, slowing things down.\par
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When an app uses UDP, packets are just sent to the recipient. The sender doesn\rquote t wait to make sure the recipient received the packet\emdash it just continues sending the next packets. If the recipient misses a few UDP packets here and there, they are just lost\emdash the sender won\rquote t resend them. Losing all this overhead means the devices can communicate more quickly.\f0\par

\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1\b ICMP\b0\par

\pard\sl240\slmult1 The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a supporting protocol in the Internet protocol suite. It is used by network devices, including routers, to send error messages and operational information indicating success or failure when communicating with another IP address, for example, an error is indicated when a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached.ICMP differs from transport protocols such as TCP and UDP in that it is not typically used to exchange data between systems, nor is it regularly employed by end-user network applications (with the exception of some diagnostic tools like ping and traceroute).\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1080\sl240\slmult1\b Windows Server Roles \f2\endash\f0  DNS, DHCP, File and Print services\b0\par

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What is a DNS Server?\par
The Domain Name System (DNS) is the phonebook of the Internet. When users type domain names such as \lquote google.com\rquote  or \lquote nytimes.com\rquote  into web browsers, DNS is responsible for finding the correct IP address for those sites. Browsers then use those addresses to communicate with origin servers or CDN edge servers to access website information. This all happens thanks to DNS servers: machines dedicated to answering DNS queries.\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1080\sl240\slmult1\b Active Directory Services\b0\par

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Domain Services\par
Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS) is the cornerstone of every Windows domain network. It stores information about members of the domain, including devices and users, verifies their credentials and defines their access rights. The server running this service is called a domain controller. A domain controller is contacted when a user logs into a device, accesses another device across the network, or runs a line-of-business Metro-style app sideloaded into a device.\par
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Other Active Directory services (excluding LDS, as described below) as well as most of Microsoft server technologies rely on or use Domain Services; examples include Group Policy, Encrypting File System, BitLocker, Domain Name Services, Remote Desktop Services, Exchange Server and SharePoint Server.\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1\b Active Directory Groups\b0\par

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Active Directory Security Groups. This type of group is used to provide access to resources. For example, you want to grant a specific group access to files on a shared folder. To do this, you need to create a security group;\par
Active Directory Distribution Groups. This type of group is used to create email distribution lists (usually used in Microsoft Exchange Server). An e-mail sent to such a group will reach all users in the group. This type of group cannot be used to provide access to domain resources, because they are not security enabled.\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1\b Group Policy\b0\par

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Group Policy is a hierarchical infrastructure that allows a network administrator in charge of Microsoft's Active Directory to implement specific configurations for users and computers\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1\b FSMO roles\b0\par

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Schema Master \f2\endash  one per forest\par
Domain Naming Master \endash  one per forest\par
Relative ID (RID) Master \endash  one per domain\par
Primary Domain Controller (PDC) Emulator \endash  one per domain\par
Infrastructure Master \endash  one per domain\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1080\sl240\slmult1\b Cloud computing \b0\par

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Cloud computing is the on-demand availability of computer system resources, especially data storage and computing power, without direct active management by the user. The term is generally used to describe data centers available to many users over the Internet. Large clouds, predominant today, often have functions distributed over multiple locations from central servers. If the connection to the user is relatively close, it may be designated an edge server.\par
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\b Infrastructure as a service (IaaS)\par
\b0 Infrastructure as a service" (IaaS) refers to online services that provide high-level APIs used to dereference various low-level details of underlying network infrastructure like physical computing resources, location, data partitioning, scaling, security, backup etc. A hypervisor runs the virtual machines as guests. Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to customers' varying requirements\par
\b Platform as a service (PaaS)\par
\b0 The capability provided to the consumer is to deploy onto the cloud infrastructure consumer-created or acquired applications created using programming languages, libraries, services, and tools supported by the provider. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration settings for the application-hosting environment.\par
\b Software as a service (SaaS)\b0\par
The capability provided to the consumer is to use the provider's applications running on a cloud infrastructure. The applications are accessible from various client devices through either a thin client interface, such as a web browser (e.g., web-based email), or a program interface. The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers, operating systems, storage, or even individual application capabilities, with the possible exception of limited user-specific application configuration settings.\par
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\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1080\sl240\slmult1 Citrix Products portfolio - essentials\par

\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1 XenApp\par
{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}XenDesktop\par
{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}XenServer\par
{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}Netscaler\par
{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}Provisioning Services\par

\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1080\sl240\slmult1 VMware Products portfolio - essentials\par

\pard{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}{\*\pn\pnlvlblt\pnf4\pnindent360{\pntxtb\'B7}}\fi-360\li1800\sl240\slmult1 ESXi\par
{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}vCenter\par
{\pntext\f4\'B7\tab}Horizon\par

\pard\sl240\slmult1\cf0\i0\f3\fs24\par

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